Eternal Ravenna by Massimiliano David

 

Eternal Ravenna with the subtitle From the Etruscans to the Venetians was published by the Italian publishing house Brepols in 2013 (hardcover). This beautiful (and expensive) book is published in a large format (25 x 33 cm) and it is lavishly illustrated. The pictures are the result of a new photographic campaign undertaken by BAMS Photo. The new pictures in the book are taken by Basilio and Matteo Rodella.

The text is written by the Italian scholar Massimiliano David, who teaches Late Antique Archaeology at the University of Bologna. His book is available in three languages: English, German, and Italian. This review is based on the English version of the book. The English translation is done by Christina Cawthra and Jo-Ann Titmarsh.

The main text is divided into seven chapters, which follow a chronological line from the Etruscans to the Venetian period, as indicated in the subtitle. Ravenna was founded by the Etruscans (the name of the city is an Etruscan word), but we do not know when it was founded. The Republic of Venice controlled Ravenna for more than sixty years (1441-1509). Here is the table of contents:

** Chapter one: THE CITY OF SARCOPHAGI AND MOSAICS
** Chapter two: FROM THE MISTS TO THE SHADOWS
** Chapter three: THE FIFTH CENTURY
** Chapter four: FROM A CENTRE TO AN OUTPOST

** Chapter five: HEADING TOWARDS NEW GEOGRAPHIES
** Chapter six: BETWEEN EUROPE AND THE MEDITERRANEAN
** Chapter seven: LOSING THE SEA

At the end of the book there are four short sections: (1) illustrations and maps; (2) notes with references and additional comments; (3) a general bibliography; and (4) an index of names.

The bibliography betrays the author’s origins; most works listed here are in Italian, but there are a few works in German and English. Among them I must mention two works by Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis: Ravenna in Late Antiquity (2010, 2014) and Agnellus of Ravenna: The Book of Pontiffs, an English translation of an important account that was written in Latin by the historian Andreas Agnellus between 830 and 840. The English translation was published in 2004.

Eternal Ravenna covers all the major locations of the city. They are presented in text and shown in pictures. As mentioned earlier, the book is lavishly illustrated. There are more than two hundred pictures in this book; most of them are large - one picture often gets one page - and they are all in colour (only a few old maps and drawings are in black-and-white). In other words: the quality of the illustrations is extremely high.

In order to demonstrate how comprehensive the pictorial coverage of each location is, I will mention a few examples:

** The so-called Mausoleum of Galla Placidia is shown in a series of wonderful pictures on pp. 78-101 (more than twenty pages)

** La Basilica di Sant’Apollinare Nuovo is shown is a series of excellent pictures on pp. 112 plus 115-123 plus 194-197 (more than ten pages)

** The Mausoleum of Theodoric is shown in a series of fabulous pictures on pp. 130-136

** La Basilica di San Vitale is shown in a series of wonderful pictures on pp. 142-167 (more than twenty pages). The famous mosaic which shows Emperor Justinian and his court appears on pp. 148-149, while the equally famous mosaic which shows Empress Theodora and her court appears on pp. 150-151

** La Basilica di Sant’Apollinare in Classe is shown in a series of excellent pictures on pp. 170-189

In addition, we have the so-called Palace of Theodoric on pp. 208-209 and three fine objects on page 49: the sarcophagus of Julia Prima, the sarcophagus of Olia Tertulla, and the sarcophagus of Gaius Didius Concordianus. A final example is the funerary monument of Publius Longidienus, who worked as a ship carpenter. There are two pictures of this monument on pp. 34-35.

I like this book, first and foremost because of the fabulous illustrations. The text is informative, but unfortunately it does not measure up to the high standard of the illustrations. There are many flaws, and they occur throughout the book. Who is to blame for this? I am not always sure: the author, the translators or the book-editor? The flaws can be divided into five categories.

THE FIRST CATEGORY:
Factual mistakes

** A paragraph on page 52 begins: “When power passed into Diocletian’s hands in 285…” We do not know when this emperor was born or when he died, but we do know when he ruled: from 284 to 305. Why does David not know this?

** The caption to illustration # 54 A and B describes a solidus (a coin) issued by Honorius (page 62). The caption begins: “On the observes…” The front of a coin is called the obverse, while the back is called the reverse. Perhaps the translators are to blame for this?

** On page 64 we hear about “the sixth consul of Honorius.” It should be the sixth consulship of Honorius. The same mistake appears on page 69. Obviously, the translators do not know the difference between a consul and a consulship.

** On the same page Galla Placidia is described as “the emperor’s stepsister.” In fact she was his half-sister: they had the same father (Theodosius) but not the same mother.

** On the same page we are told that Constantius died in 421, “leaving Galla a widow and Honoria and Valentinianus orphans.” The two children did not become orphans, because their mother was still alive. They became fatherless.

** A paragraph on page 70 begins like this: “With the return of Galla Placidia and her children to Italy in 426…” In fact, they returned in 425. Valentinianus was crowned as the future emperor in Rome on 23 October 425. His mother was with him, because he was only a boy at the time. He was born in 419, so he was only six years old when this ceremony took place. Why does David not know this?

** On page 138 the author presents the famous sarcophagus of Seda, who died in 541. David quotes the inscription in Latin and adds an English translation, which runs as follows: “Here lies in peace the illustrious Sayda, eunuch and cubicularium of King Theodoric, who lived for some forty years and was buried on the fourth day before the Ides of March in the year in which he was Consul Basilius the younger, during the fourth indiction.”

There are several problems here:

(1) The name of the man is Seda, not Sayda. (2) His title is cubicularius, not cubicularium, i.e. he was a high civil servant, often translated as chamberlain. (3) The latter half of the translation is completely wrong. Here is what it should be:

“He was buried on the fourth day before the Ides of March in the year when Basilius the Younger was consul, during the fourth year of the indiction.”

Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius was the last Roman consul. He served in 541 and surprisingly he did not have a colleague. Seda was never a consul, as the faulty English translation implies. The name of the consul is used to determine the year in which Seda died. An indiction is a period or a cycle of 15 years. This concept was introduced in the western empire in AD 312, during the reign of Constantine. When we have the Latin expression “quarta indictione,” it means in the fourth year of the current 15-year cycle. None of this is explained in the book. Who is to blame for the faulty translation of the Latin inscription? The author or the translators? I do not know. I only know the translation is wrong.

** Bishop Agnellus is mentioned several times. On page 69 we are told he served 557-570, which is true. But on page 203 we are told he died in 569, which is false. The author insists on the false date when he continues: “Four years had gone by since Justinian’s death and one since the Longobards had entered Italy by force.”

Justinian died in 565, so five years had gone by since this event. The Longobards invaded Italy in 568, so two years had gone by since this event. The author is inconsistent: he gives two different dates for the same event.

** Agnellus the historian is mentioned several times. On page 209 his first name is given as Andrea, which is wrong. The wrong name also appears in the index. On page 9 his first name is given as Andreas, which is true. Again we can see the author is inconsistent.

** The so-called “Donation of Constantine” is mentioned three times (pp. 214, 221, and 222). We are never told that this document is a forgery. How can David mention this document three times without telling us that it is a hoax? Does he think it is genuine?

** On page 215 there are two pictures. The pictures are fine, but the captions are wrong. The caption for # 171 (the upper picture) should be: “Sarcophagus of Archbishop Felix” (not Damian), while the caption for # 172 (the lower picture) should be: “Sarcophagus of archbishop Gratiosus” (not Felix).

THE SECOND CATEGORY:
Unfortunate statements

** On page 28 David mentions the small town of Cesena and adds the following words: “In a letter Cicero, the orator’s brother, refers to Cesena pejoratively.”

The full name of the orator is Marcus Tullius Cicero. He is known as Cicero. The full name of his brother is Quintus Tullius Cicero. He is known as Quintus. In a note David refers to Ad Fam. XVI, 27. If you check this reference, you will see it is a letter from Quintus to Tiro, Cicero’s secretary, written in December 44 BC. By the way, the name of the town is Caesena (not Cesena). David should know this: the correct name appears on a map at the end of his book: # 2, page 260 (but the wrong name appears on another map: # VII.2, page 264). Moreover, Quintus does not criticize the town; he criticizes the two consuls of that year, Hirtius and Pansa.

The standard commentary on Cicero’s letters is edited by D. R. Shackleton Bailey. Regarding this letter he says: “Caesena was a small town near the Rubicon in Cisalpine Gaul… But what put this locality into Quintus’s head there’s no knowing.”

David’s statement about Cicero (which is, in fact, about Quintus) is most unfortunate, because it is inaccurate and because it does not add anything to our understanding of Ravenna’s history.

** A strange passage appears on page 30 and again on page 34: “… under Julius and Claudius.” I know Claudius, who ruled 41-54. But who is Julius? Several emperors took this name, because they wished to be connected with Gaius Julius Caesar, but no emperor is known by this name. Since this passage appears two times, it is not just a misprint. It must be a misunderstanding.

** David seems to believe that Pope Leo the Great saved Italy from Attila and the Huns. He says so twice (pp. 105, 205). This is what Leo and the Catholic Church want us to believe, but it is wishful thinking. The pope did not have the power to stop Attila. Other factors were at work here. For more information, see The Enemies of Rome by Philip Matyszak (2004, 2008), chapter 17, in particular page 278.

THE THIRD CATEGORY:
The Italian version of ancient names is not always translated into English

** In the text we have the Greek historian Dio Cassius, but in the notes we have “Dione Cassio.” Notes to chapter 2, page 272, notes 47 and 60.

** In the text we have the Roman poet Martial, but in the notes we have “Marziale.” Notes to chapter 2, page 273, note 87.

** Note 41, page 273, refers to “the usurper Giovanni Primicerio.” His name is Ioannes. In English he is known as Joannes or simply John. His title is primicerius notatiorum, i.e. a senior civil servant.

** Notes to chapter 4, page 273. Note 32 says: “Su Procopio CAMERON 1996.” The translators forgot to translate this note. The Italian text means: On Procopius, CAMERON 1996.

** Most of these examples are found in the notes, but some of them pop up in the main text. On page 52 we have the “Coliseum” instead of the Colosseum, and on page 138 we have the banker “Giuliano Argentario” whose real name is Julius Argentarius. The latter mistake also appears on page 190 and in the index!

** On page 190 we have “general Narsete.” In English he is known as Narses, and on page 203 we have “general Baduario,” whose real name is Baduarius.

** On page 210 we have “Archbishop Felice,” whose real name is Felix. The same mistake appears on page 213 and in the index!

** On page 214 we have “Archbishop Grazioso,” whose real name is Gratiosus, and “Archbishop Valerio,” whose real name is Valerius.

As far as I can see, the English translation is quite good when it comes to general information. The translators are professional, but they are not really familiar with the world of ancient Greece and ancient Rome.

THE FOURTH CATEGORY:
Unfortunate layout of text and illustrations

Some publishers of picture books pay great attention to the layout of the text. They make sure the text comes to a full stop at the bottom of a page. This is not the case here. The text is routinely interrupted by a series of illustrations, sometimes a long series of illustrations. Here are two examples where the text is interrupted in the middle of a sentence:

** Page 64 – cited as ///// supporting – page 69
** Page 77 – a sort ///// of monumental hegemony – page 104

Sometimes it is worse: sometimes the text is interrupted in the middle of a word! Here are three examples:

** Page 140 – the so- ///// called – page 168
** Page 168 – deco- ///// rative – page 190
** Page 190 – Justin- ///// ian – page 198

THE FIFTH CATEGORY:
Misprints

** Page 76: “Saint John th Evangelist.” We want “the.”
** Page 190: “an eulogy.” We want “a eulogy.”
** Page 205: “Emperor Mauric.” We want “Maurice.”
** Page 213: “Rio de Janeiro cannot be judge on its favelas.” The correct form of the verb is “judged.”

In the old days, before the computer, accidents like these could happen, and they could be forgiven. But nowadays we work with computers, and almost every computer program for writing will issue a warning, a red line or a blue line under the word, if it is misspelled or if it is not found in the dictionary. It seems the author or the translators or the book-editor ignored a warning against these misprints, and this sign of careless proofreading cannot be forgiven.

CONCLUSION

Ravenna is a fascinating city. It is famous for sarcophagi and mosaics from ancient times (the Roman Empire, the kingdom of the Goths, and the Byzantine Empire). It is also famous because it is the place where the Italian poet Dante Alighieri spent his last years (1318-1321). There are many monuments in Ravenna from different periods and many of them are well preserved. If you are interested in art and/or history, there is a lot to see and to do in this city.

Eternal Ravenna is not a guidebook. You do not want to take it with you when you are going to Italy. In the first place, it is much too big and much too heavy. It is not very handy at all. Secondly, there is no practical information about where the monuments are located or when they are open to the public. For these things you need a traditional guidebook (or you can simply use the internet).

Eternal Ravenna is written and published for the armchair traveller who wants to study the art and history of Ravenna without leaving his or her home. But the book is much more than that. If you are planning a trip to Ravenna, you can use it to prepare your visit. The text gives you background information, while the illustrations show you what to look for when you get there. After a visit to Ravenna, this book will be a weighty and wonderful souvenir.

How many stars does this book deserve? When I consider the illustrations, my answer is five stars. No doubt about it. But when I consider the text, my answer is only three stars. There are many flaws here. Taken one by one, they may seem trivial. Taken together, they become a serious problem. How could the author, the translators, and the book-editor fail to notice and correct the flaws I have documented in this review? When I consider the book as a whole, I think it deserves a rating of four stars.

PS. The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna is a deluxe product in two volumes edited by Patrizia Angiolini Martinelli and published by Franco Cosimo Panini in 1997. The price is about £ 388! The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna is a deluxe product edited by the same scholar and published by the same publisher in 1996. The price is about £ 165! A bilingual book about both these monuments edited by Gianfranco Malafarina is available at a much more reasonable price (about £ 11): La Basilica di San Vitale e il Mausoleo di Galla Placidia // The Basilica of San Vitale and the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (2008, reprinted 2012).

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Massimiliano David,

Eternal Ravenna: From the Etruscans to the Venetians,

Brepols, 2013, 288 pages

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For more information about Ravenna, see my blogs:

Ravenna by Corrado Ricci

Ravenna: A Study by Edward Hutton

Ravenna: The Palace of Theodoric

Ravenna: Piazza del Popolo

Ravenna: Piazza Garibaldi

Ravenna: Sites to See and Prices to Pay

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Two important monuments in Ravenna

This bilingual guidebook about two important monuments in Ravenna was published by the Italian publishing house Franco Cosimo Panini in 2008 and reprinted in 2012. As I write this review (in 2014) it is still available.

 

The text as well as all captions are printed in two languages, Italian and English. The English translation is done by Wendell Ricketts from CITI Traduzioni in Modena.

There are 126 pages and the format is 17 x 24 cm. The book is lavishly illustrated: there are 120 colour photos plus 65 floor plans and diagrams. The photos are taken by the Italian photographer Paolo Robino.

The editor is the Italian journalist and art critic Gianfranco Malafarina, who has edited several bilingual books for Franco Cosimo Panini, including La Villa Farnesina a Roma // The Villa Farnesina in Rome (2003) and Il Duomo di Modena // The Cathedral of Modena (2009).

 

The book about Ravenna, which is under review here, is divided into two parts:

*** Part one, la Basilica di San Vitale, pp. 5-92, i.e. more than 80 pages with text and 69 illustrations - plus a few pictures with no number.

*** Part two, the so-called Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, pp. 93-125, i.e. more than 30 pages with text and 33 illustrations - plus a few pictures with no number.

Floor plans and diagrams accompany each illustration, placing it in its context and identifying its exact position in relation to the rest of the building. To give just one example: on page 48 there is a very helpful drawing of the presbytery and the apse in Basilica di San Vitale. In short: the quality of the illustrations is extremely high.

The brief bibliography on page 126 includes a book in Italian by Antonio Paolucci: Ravenna. Una guida d’arte, published in 1971. This book is also available in English: Ravenna: An Art Guide, published by Edizioni Salera in 1973.

To the works listed in the bibliography I wish to add the following: Ravenna: Art and History by Giuseppe Bovini (Longo, 1991, new edition 2008); Ravenna in Late Antiquity by Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis (Cambridge University Press, HC 2010, PB 2014) and Eternal Ravenna: From the Etruscans to the Venetians by Massimiliano David (Brepols, 2013).

Part one about the Basilica di San Vitale is divided into 12 short sections:

# 01. General History
# 02. The Exterior
# 03. The Large Cloister
# 04. The Ardica and the Vestibules

# 05. The ambulatory
# 06. The Women’s Gallery
# 07. The Central Chamber
# 08. The Cupola

# 09. The Floor
# 10. The Presbytery
# 11. The Apse
# 12. The Vault of the Presbytery

Here is a quote from page 11:

“Wonderfully blended with the mosaic decorations and sophisticated quality of the marble panels and sculptural work, the architectural design creates enchanting contrasts of light and shadow, giving rise to a space that is both dramatic and dynamic, a space that seems to extend infinitely, enveloping and projecting visitors into a divine dimension.”

Here is a quote from page 13:

“Thanks to the geniality of its layout, the brilliant colors of its mosaics decorations and the richness prospective created by the pinwheel arrangement of the interior, designed to create an illusion of infinite space, San Vitale constitutes one of the most exquisite expressions of Byzantine architecture and decorative arts, deftly united in a marvellous synthesis.”

The famous mosaic which shows Emperor Justinian and his court gets four pictures: # 47 the total view; # 48 the soldiers; # 49 Bishop Maximianus; # 50 Justinian. The equally famous mosaic which shows Empress Theodora and her court also gets four pictures: # 51 the total view; # 52 Theodora; # 53 two ladies; # 54 five ladies. I have three comments to the presentation:

(A) Regarding the former panel, I notice that the editor does not try to identify any figures except Justinian (in the middle) and Maximianus, whose name is written above him. Some scholars think we can see Belisarius, Narses and/or Julius Argentarius in this mosaic. Perhaps they are right.

(B) Regarding the latter panel, I notice that the editor does not mention Theodora’s dress. The decoration on the lower part of her dress shows the three wise men offering gifts to Mary. The same motive is used on the sarcophagus of Isaac the Armenian, which is mentioned and shown two times: pp. 8 and 28.

(C) Regarding both panels, I notice that the editor does not mention the shoes. The emperor and the empress wear better and more colourful shoes than the other figures. Apparently, one way to indicate their high rank is by giving them better shoes!

Part two about the so-called Mausoleum of Galla Placidia is divided into four short sections:

# 1. General History
# 2. The Exterior
# 3. The Interior
# 4. The Cupola

Here is a quote from page 97:

“According to one legend, the celebrated American songwriter, Cole Porter, on honeymoon in Ravenna at the end of the 1920s, was so taken by the atmosphere in this small mausoleum that he composed the melody for ‘Night and Day’ while imagining Galla Placidia’s star-strewn sky.”

Here is a quote from page 99:

“In the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, the dynamism of the space merges flawlessly with the mosaic and sculptural elements, creating a sublimely emotional atmosphere that invites meditation and reflection and which transmits the same spiritual vitality that surely animated the imperial figures who commissioned its construction.”

As you can see from the above, this guidebook has a very systematic approach. The editor will take you by the hand and walk you through both monuments, step by step. I like this book. The illustrations are excellent and the captions are informative. But I have to mention a few things about the English translation which bother me. There are mistakes and misprints. In addition, there are several cases where the Italian version of ancient names has not been translated into English.

** On page 7 we read about “Illiria and Norico.” In Latin and in English these provinces are known as Illyricum and Noricum.

** On page 8 we read about the rich banker “Julian.” In Latin and in English this man is known as Julius.

** The sarcophagus of Isaac the Armenian is mentioned and shown on page 8 (illustrations # 4 and 5). According to the Italian caption it is from ca. 420. According to the English caption it is from the second decade of the 5th century, which amounts to the same thing. But this person died around 643, as we are told on page 28. This means the sarcophagus is from the 7th century.

** The caption to illustration # 5 on page 22 says: “The large cloister seen from the bell town.” When the caption is repeated on page 23, we get the correct form: “The large cloister seen from the bell tower.”

[Incidentally, the editor forgets to tell you that nowadays the large cloister is a part of the National Museum (located next to the church). If you wish to enter this area, you must buy one more ticket. Do not worry about it: the National Museum is absolutely worth a visit.]

                                                  
** The caption to illustration # 20 on page 42 says: “The cuple.” When the caption is repeated on page 43, we get the correct form: The cupola.

** The headline on page 48 says “The presbitery.” The false spelling seems to be inspired by the Italian word “Il presbiterio.” In the text we have the correct form “presbytery.” Unfortunately, the false spelling pops up again on page 88.

** The caption to illustration # 36 on page 59 is flawed in several ways: a word is missing and two words are misspelled. I have added the missing word and the correct spelling in square brackets:

“Above the lunette two winged victory angels [hold] a clipeurs [clipeus], or shield, containing the cross from which are suspended two Ω’s, a typical glorification decive [device] of classic derivation.”

** The caption to illustrations # 51-54 on page 75 says: “With respect to the previous panel, this scene appears more variegated…” It would be better to say: “Compared with the previous panel, this scene appears more variegated…”

** On page 96 we have the following passage: “With her children, Valentinian and Eudossia, Galla sent the Emperor a series of warm letters…”

Valentinian is the son of Galla Placidia, who later became Emperor Valentinian III. Eudossia is the Italian version of the Latin name Eudoxia. Her first name is Licinia and she is not the daughter of Galla Placidia; she is the daughter of the eastern Emperor Theodosius II; she was born in 422 and married Valentinian in 437. She outlived her husband and died in 462. The text should be emended as follows:

“With her son Valentinian and her daughter-in-law Licinia Eudoxia, Galla Placidia sent the Emperor a series of warm letters…”

[For more information about Galla Placidia and her family, see Galla Placidia: The Last Roman Empress by Hagith Sivan (Oxford University Press, 2011).]

These flaws are minor, i.e. they do not disturb the meaning and the message of the book, but they mar the impression of a work which is otherwise perfect. I am disappointed to see them repeated in the reprint of 2012. I hope they will be corrected in the next printing.

If you are an armchair traveller, I am sure you can enjoy this book. If you are planning to go to Ravenna, this book can help you prepare the visit. Take it with you when you have a chance to go. It is not too heavy to carry in a shoulder bag. Take it out when you are standing outside one of these monuments, which are located next to each other, and let the book guide you through them, step by step. Use the pictures and the captions to understand what you see. In this way you will not be overwhelmed by the huge amount of decorations and details.

Ravenna is a charming city with many interesting monuments. The two cases presented here are among the top 10 attractions. With this excellent book in your hand you will be able to make the most of your visit.

PS. You are allowed to use a camera inside these monuments. In Basilica di San Vitale you may even use a flash, if you feel you need it. However, in the mausoleum of Galla Placidia the rules are different: you are not allowed to use a flash, even though the interior is a bit dim. Therefore you should know that it may be difficult to take good and sharp pictures inside this building.

 

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Gianfranco Malafarina, editor,

La Basilica di San Vitale e il Mausoleo di Galla Placidia //

The Basilica of San Vitale and the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna,

Franco Cosimo Panini: Modena, 2008, reprinted 2012, 126 pages

 

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For more information about Ravenna, see my blogs:

Basilica di San Vitale (1)
Basilica di San Vitale (2)

Basilica di Sant'Apollinare in Classe (1)
Basilica di Sant'Apollinare in Classe (2)
 

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War and Peace in the Roman World

War and Society in the Roman World edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley was published by Routledge in 1993 (hardcover) and in 1995 (paperback). Since 2002 it has been available as a download for Amazon Kindle. First a few words about the editors:

** John Rich was, at the time of publication, Senior Lecturer in Classics at the University of Nottingham. I can add the following information: he is the author of a chapter in Private and Public Lies edited by A. J. Turner and others (2010). His contribution (which is available online) is called “Deception, Lies, and Economy with the Truth: Augustus and the Establishment of the Principate.”

** Graham Shipley was, at the time of publication, Lecturer in Ancient History and Head of the Ancient History Division at the University of Leicester. I can add the following information: he is co-editor and co-author of The Cambridge Dictionary of Classical Civilization (2006, 2008)

This book and its companion volume - War and Society in the Greek World - are the product of seminars jointly organized by the Classics Departments of Leicester and Nottingham Universities. ‘War and Society in the Ancient World’ was the theme of a series of seminars held in Leicester and Nottingham between 1988 and 1990. The two volumes contain substantially revised versions of a selection of papers from that series.

The volume about the Roman world opens with a brief introduction by one of the editors (Rich). The main text is divided into 12 chapters written by 12 scholars, including one of the editors (Rich). Here is the table of contents (the affiliation of each contributor at the time of publication is added in brackets):

1. The Roman conquest of Italy

By Steven Oakley (Fellow and Director of Studies in Classics at Emmanuel College, Cambridge)

2. Fear, greed and glory: the causes of Roman war-making in the middle Republic

By John Rich

3. Urbs direpta, or how the Romans sacked cities
By Adam Ziolkowski (Lecturer in Ancient History at the University of Warsaw)

4. Military organization and social change in the later Roman Republic
By John Patterson (Fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in Ancient History)

5. Roman poetry and anti-militarism
By Duncan Cloud (Associate Senior Lecturer in Ancient History at the University of Leicester)

6. The end of Roman imperial expansion
By Tim Cornell (Senior Lecturer in History at University College, London)

7. Roman peace
By Greg Woolf (Andrew and Randall Crawley Fellow in the History of the Ancient World at Magdalen College, Oxford)

8. Piracy under the principate and the ideology of imperial eradication
By David Braund (Lecturer in Classics at the University of Exeter)

9. War and diplomacy: Rome and Parthia, 31 BC-AD 235
By Brian Campbell (Lecturer in Ancient History at the Queen’s University of Belfast)

10. Philosophers’ attitudes to war under the principate
By Harry Sidebottom (doing post-doctoral research at Corpus Christi College, Oxford)

11. The end of the Roman army in the western empire
By Wolfgang Liebeschuetz (Emeritus Professor of Classics and Ancient History at the University of Nottingham and a Fellow of the British Academy)

12. Landlords and warlords in the later Roman Empire

By Dick Whittaker (Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in Ancient History)

Each chapter (except chapter 11) is divided into shorter sections by subheadings, which is very reader-friendly. Each chapter has its own bibliography. References and additional comments are given in notes placed at the bottom of the page, which is also very reader-friendly. At the end of the book there is an index.

What about illustrations? There is a picture on the front cover of the book. It is a picture of a terracotta relief from the first or the second century AD showing prisoners of war in a triumphal cart, probably Roman, now in the British Museum. But there are no pictures inside the book. There are three figures in chapter 2 and a chart in chapter 1, but there is not a single map and not a single picture inside the book. The visual aspects are not exactly the strong side of this book. The contributors and/or the editors could and should have paid more attention to this aspect.

Many locations are mentioned in the text, not only in Italy, but also in the Roman provinces. That is why we need a map of the Roman Empire plus maps of several smaller sections of the empire. To give just one example: the city of Olbia is mentioned three times in chapter 10. That is why we need a map of the Black Sea area.

The lack of relevant illustrations is disappointing. Here are three examples:

** The temple of Janus, the doors of which were closed during peace, is mentioned by Duncan Cloud in chapter 5 (page 134). But there is no picture to illustrate this tradition. The temple does not exist anymore, but it is shown on coins, for
instance a sestertius issued during the reign of Nero (54-68).

** The Altar of Pax Augusta, known in Latin as Ara Pacis, is mentioned by Greg Woolf in chapter 7 (page 177). But there is not a single picture of this unique monument. For more information, see AWOL (The Ancient World Online) 11 July 2014: Ara Pacis Augustae.

** Notitia Dignitatum is mentioned by Wolfgang Liebeschuetz in chapter 11 (pp. 265-267). But there is not a single picture of this important map of the empire which tells us where the Roman civilian and military units were stationed around AD 400. For more information, see the Medieval Sourcebook by Fordham University.

When you look at the table of contents, you can see that the 12 chapters follow a chronological line, moving from the early republic to the age of Augustus and ending with the fall of the Roman Empire in the west. Each chapter covers a period of Roman history and/or a topic connected with it. However, you should know that this book is not a traditional history of the Roman Empire, and that is why it is not recommended for the beginner. Each contributor assumes the reader already has a basic knowledge about Roman history. Each chapter is a research paper. The authors ask questions. They do not ask what happened. They ask why it happened. If we have information about a certain change, they will ask: what is the reason for this change? Or perhaps a better question: what are the reasons for this change? In many cases we need to take account of more than one factor when we want to explain and understand a certain change.

A good example is Roman imperialism. It is a well-known fact that Roman territory expanded very fast during the Roman Republic. Why did this happen? The traditional interpretation, which goes back to the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20thcentury, says the Romans were reluctant imperialists; they had to defend themselves against attacks from the outside. Most modern scholars reject this interpretation. For one thing it is not supported by the ancient evidence. In addition, there is a hidden agenda: the traditional interpretation tries to justify the Roman expansion.

In many cases, a modern interpretation of ancient history is a reflection of the time in which it was conceived and published. For instance, books about Caesar and Augustus which were published during the age of British colonialism tend to present these characters in a positive light, while books written during the age of decolonization tend to be more critical of them.

War and Imperialism in Republican Rome by W. V. Harris is mentioned several times. This book, first published in 1979, was an important milestone (a second edition appeared in 1985). After this book was published, it was difficult (or impossible) to maintain the theory about the reluctant imperialists. Harris is very convincing when he is demolishing the traditional interpretation of Roman imperialism. But his book can be criticized as well, because he claims Roman territory expanded because of greed. His interpretation is economic, and he sees only one factor, it is mono-causal. A more modern approach would take more than one factor into account, as John Rich says in his contribution (chapter 2).

War and Society in the Roman World received a positive review in the academic journal Greece & Rome. On the back cover of the paperback version there is a brief excerpt from this review:

“The papers are of a high standard of originality and scholarship and form an important contribution to a field of study increasingly at the centre of ancient history.”

I agree with the positive words. The 12 chapters are well-written. It is interesting to see how the contributors discuss the ancient evidence and modern interpretations of it. The editors have done a good job. There are several cross references from one chapter to another. Sometimes the purpose is to give additional information; in other cases the purpose is to introduce a different point of view.

I like this book, but I have to mention a few things which bother me. First, there are three unfortunate misprints:

** On page 121 Duncan Cloud says: “This legislation in described in a way that cannot possibly be accurate.” The second word in this sentence should be “is” and not “in.”

** On page 149 Tim Cornell places the conquest of Dacia in 106-108. But the wars against Dacia took place in 101-102 and 105-106.

** On page 196 David Braund says: “Bandits took to the sea, while pirates operated on land.” Obviously, the two key words were inverted. What he wants to say is: Pirates took to the sea, while bandits operated on land.

Secondly, and more importantly, the title of the book is misleading. The title War and Society in the Roman World is inaccurate. It should be: War and Peace in the Roman World. Why? Because this is a book about war and peace; about the role these two types of reality played in Roman society. It is not a book about Roman society in general. A look at the index confirms my claim. There is an entry for “war” with several references. There is an entry for “peace” as well as “pax Romana” again with several references. But there is no entry for “society,” because none of the 12 scholars writes about Roman society in general. It goes without saying that the same objection applies to the companion volume about the Greek world. The title of the companion volume should have been War and Peace in the Greek World.

There is much to like in this book. But the lack of relevant illustrations is a serious flaw. And the misleading title is unfortunate. If you ask me, it is a good book, but not a great book. Therefore I think it deserves a rating of four stars.

PS. This book was published some twenty years ago. Since then, other scholars have explored some of the topics discussed here. The Roman triumph is mentioned in chapter 2. A full-scale study is The Roman Triumph by Mary Beard (2007, 2009). Bandits are mentioned in chapter 7. A full-scale study is Bandits in the Roman Empire by Thomas Grünewald (2004, 2008). Piracy is discussed is chapter 8. A full-scale study is Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World by Philip de Souza (1999, 2002). The relations between Rome and Parthia are discussed in chapter 9. A full-scale study is Rome and Parthia by Daryn Graham (2013).

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John Rich and Graham Shipley, editors,

War and Society in the Roman World,

Routledge, hardcover 1993, paperback 1995, 315 pages

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Ara Pacis (the Altar of Peace) in Rome

The English version of this guide to Ara Pacis (the Altar of Peace) in Rome is published by the Italian publishing house Electa: first edition 2006; second edition 2007; third expanded edition 2012 (143 pages). The format is 23 x 26 cm, i.e. larger than a typical book. The English translation is done by Stefano Fox and Sylvia Notini.

The text is written by Orietta Rossini, who is the director of the new Ara Pacis museum – known as Museo dell’Ara Pacis Augustae - which opened in April 2006. The text is divided into 14 chapters. Here is the table of contents (some headings have been modified):

CHAPTER 01 - The Ara Pacis in antiquity
CHAPTER 02 - From oblivion to reassembly
CHAPTER 03 - The architecture of the altar

CHAPTER 04 - Panel # 1: Aeneas (4 pages)
CHAPTER 05 - Panel # 2: Lupercal (2 pages)
CHAPTER 06 - Panel # 3: Tellus (10 pages)
CHAPTER 07 - Panel # 4: The goddess Rome (2 pages)

CHAPTER 08 - The procession (more than thirty pages)
CHAPTER 09 - The great vegetal frieze (more than ten pages)
CHAPTER 10 – The residual fragments
CHAPTER 11 - Reliefs of an altar of the age of Claudius: from the so-called Ara Pietatis to the Ara reditus Claudii

CHAPTER 12 - The Res gestae divi Augusti
CHAPTER 13 - The Ara Pacis from Morpurgo to Meier
CHAPTER 14 - The colours of the Ara Pacis

At the end of the book there is a bibliography. Most of the works listed here are in Italian, but there are a few items in German and in English, for instance The Ara Pacis Augustae by David Castriota (1995) and Artists of the Ara Pacis by Diane Atnally Conlin (hardcover 1997, paperback 2011).

Among the English works I also want to mention Art and Architecture in the Service of Politics edited by Henry Armand Millon and Linda Nochlin (1978). A chapter in this book written by Spiro Konstantine Koslof (1936-1991) is called “The Emperor and the Duce: The Planning of Piazzale Augusto Imperatore in Rome,” pp. 270-325.

The text is illustrated with numerous photos, maps and drawings; many of them are quite large: one picture often gets one page. Some illustrations are new, while others are old. All the new ones are in colour, as they should be, while the old ones are in black-and-white, which is not surprising.

Some of the old pictures are very interesting, because they show an important moment in time, for instance the picture on page 18 which was taken in Rome in 1903. The caption says: “Excavation of the Ara Pacis, rescue of a large slab with scrolls.” Another example is the picture on page 116 which was taken in Rome on 23 September 1938. The caption says: “Inauguration of the Ara Pacis.” In this picture we can see Benito Mussolini and other fascist leaders as they inspect the monument on the day the old museum was opened.

Some of the new pictures show the new museum from the outside and from the inside. In short: the quality of the illustrations is extremely high.

Now a few words about the monument and its history:

The decision to build an altar for peace was announced in a decree issued by the Roman Senate on 4 July 13 BC. The altar was dedicated on 30 January 9 BC. It took more than three years to complete it. Obviously, a considerable amount of time and energy was invested in this monument (page 6).

Surprisingly, the ancient literary evidence about this monument is very limited (page 12).

The monument was discovered in modern times and re-assembled in the 1930s. The restored monument was inaugurated by Mussolini on 23 September 1938, the closing day of the Augustan year (1937-1938). Augustus was born on 23 September 63 BC. The fascist leader wanted to celebrate the 2000-year anniversary of Augustus, in order to show the connection between himself and the famous emperor (page 17).

The base of the monument almost forms a square: the western and eastern facades measure 11.6 m; while the southern and northern facades measure 10.6 m.

The western façade features an entrance flanked by two panels. On the right we have panel # 1 with Aeneas (chapter 4). On the left we have panel # 2 with Lupercal (chapter 5). Outside there are 10 steps and inside there are 8 steps, which lead to the interior table (mensa).

The eastern façade also features an entrance flanked by two panels. On the left we have panel # 3 with Tellus (chapter 6). On the right we have panel # 4 with the Goddess Rome (chapter 7). Outside there are no steps, but inside there are 4 steps, which lead to the lower level of the monument. There is no direct access to the interior table from this side.

The northern and southern façades feature a procession with 46 persons: both men and women, both adults and children. Some of these persons we can identify by name, in particular Augustus and Agrippa (chapter 8).

The exterior decoration is divided into a lower and an upper register. The four panels and the two processions are all located in the upper register. The lower register on all four sides of the monument is decorated with a vegetal frieze (chapter 9).

Augustus did something surprising and very brave when he decided to build the Ara Pacis: he tried to turn peace into something respectable in a society that was based on war; a society in which war was the normal thing and peace was the exception. That is why this monument is so significant. There is almost nothing like it anywhere in the ancient world.

For more information about this topic, see War and Society in the Roman World edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley (1993, 1995), in particular chapters 6 and 7. See also Rome and the Sword: How Warriors and Weapons Shaped Roman History by Simon James (2011, 2012)

When the monument was inaugurated in 1938, it was housed in a pavilion that was designed by the Italian architect Vittorio Ballio Morpurgo (1890-1966). From the outset this pavilion was intended as a temporary solution, but as it happened it was allowed to stand for a long period.

Around 1990, it was clear that the old pavilion from 1938 had outlived its time, and something had to be done. In 1996 the city of Rome decided to hire the US architect Richard Meier (born 1934) to design a new pavilion, which could replace the old one and at the same time turn the location into a modern museum.

The project was controversial and for this reason it was delayed several times, but finally in April 2006 the new museum was opened and the ancient monument was once again accessible to the public (chapter 13).

Electa has published an excellent guidebook about the ancient monument which is now housed in a modern pavilion. The author gives us the history of the altar; she analyses the four panels, the two processions and the vegetal frieze. But this is not all. She also covers several related issues, such as:

** The residual fragments (chapter 10)
** An altar from the time of Claudius (chapter 11)
** The Res gestae divi Augusti (chapter 12)
** The colours of the altar (chapter 14)

I like this book, I really do, but I have to mention that the English translation is flawed in several ways.

THE FIRST PROBLEM: the bibliography. One of the works listed here is a book by the German scholar Paul Zanker. The book is highly relevant, but the translators give us the Italian version that was published in 1989. They should list the English version: The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (hardcover 1988, paperback 1990).

THE SECOND PROBLEM: the Italian version of ancient names is not always translated. This seems to be a common problem when books about ancient Rome are translated from Italian to English. The publisher looks for an Italian person who knows some English. What they should do is to look for an English person who knows some Italian. In addition they should find a translator who is familiar with the history of the ancient world. Here are some examples:

** Page 12 – “Atti Arvales” – instead of “Acta Arvales.”

** Page 30 – “pater Enea” – instead of “pater Aeneas.”

** Page 48 – “littores” instead of “lictores.”

** Page 51 – “Cneus Domitius Ahenobarbus” who is person # 41 in the procession on the southern façade – but his first name is spelled “Gnaeus.” The same mistake appears on pp. 59, 66, 71 and 74. In fact, this name is always misspelled in this book.

** Page 57 – “Giulia” – but the Latin form of this name is Iulia, while the English form is Julia. The translators know the English form: on page 66 we find both forms, the Italian and the English, almost side by side!

THE THIRD PROBLEM: the translators seem to have difficulties with the order of words and with prepositions. Here are some examples:

** Page 12 – “… that actually Strabo did not describe…” – it should be: that Strabo actually did not describe…

** Page 12 – “Only in the Renaissance… the Ara Pacis was again recognized” – it should be: Only in the Renaissance… was the Ara Pacis recognized again…

** Page 17 – “Only in 1954 this item was donated by Pope Pius XII…” – it would be better to say: This item was not donated until 1954 when Pope Pius XII…

** Page 22 – “The Ara Pacis basically consists in a precinct…” – it should be: The Ara Pacis basically consists of a precinct…

** Page 36 – “This interpretation eventually prevailed…” – it should be: The latter interpretation eventually prevailed…

** Page 105 – “In one and only occasion the author seems to betray himself…” – it would be better to say: There is only one case where the author seems to betray himself…

** Page 118 – “Only when the Ministry of the Public Education definitely abandoned the idea of moving the Ara Pacis, the Town Administration began to work on the pavilion…” – it should be: Only when the Ministry of Public Education definitely abandoned the idea of moving the Ara Pacis, did the Town Administration begin to work on the pavilion…

** Page 118 – “On the contrary, new problems emerged since the mid-nineties.” – It would be better to say: On the contrary, new problems emerged in the mid-nineties.

These flaws are minor, i.e. they do not disturb the meaning or the message of the book. But they mar this work; they spoil the appearance and the impression of a volume that is, in so many other ways, a perfect product: excellent text, outstanding illustrations, and reader-friendly layout.

While this guidebook deserves a rating of five stars, I hope Electa will publish a fourth edition where these embarrassing blemishes have been corrected.

PS # 1: the following articles about the Ara Pacis are all available online: Alan Riding, “Richard Meier’s Home for the Ara Pacis, a Roman Treasure, Opens,” New York Times, 24 April 2006; Carolyn Lyons, “The Empire’s New Clothes,” Financial Times Magazine, 25 August 2007; Paulette Singley, “Roma Macchiata: The Stain of White,” LOG (observations on architecture and the contemporary city), Summer//Fall 2007, pp. 129-136; Maria Josè Strazzulla, “War and Peace: Housing the Ara Pacis in the Eternal City,” American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 113, no. 2, April 2009.

PS # 2: “Ara Pacis Augustae” is the title of an excellent website where you can find not only text and illustrations, but also links to some old newsreels recorded in the 1930s. The site was established on 15 April 2011 by Charles S. Rhyne (1932-2013), who taught Art History at Reed College for many years (1960-1997).

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Orietta Rossini,
Ara Pacis Guide,
Electa, first edition 2006, second edition 2007,
Third expanded edition 2012, 143 pages

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