The North African Stones Speak

Paul Lachlan MacKendrick (1914-1998) was a classical scholar from the US. He was Professor of History and Classics at the University of Wisconsin for more than thirty years (1952-1984) and wrote several books about the history of the ancient world:

** The Mute Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Italy (1960, second edition 1984)

** The Greek Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Greek Lands (1962, second edition 1984)

** The Iberian Stones Speak: Archaeology in Spain and Portugal (1969)

** Romans on the Rhine: Archaeology in Germany (1970)

** Roman France (1972)

** The Dacian Stones Speak (hardcover 1975, paperback 2000)

** The North African Stones Speak (hardcover 1980, paperback 2000)

The last book in the series, the one about North Africa, which is under review here, has 434 pages. The main text is divided into five parts (and twelve chapters) about the ancient history of four North African countries. Here is a brief overview:

PART 1

Four chapters cover more than ten sites in Tunisia.

PART 2

Two chapters cover more than ten sites in Libya.

PART 3

Four chapters cover more than ten sites in Algeria.

PART 4

One chapter covers several sites in Morocco.

PART 5

One chapter is titled “The Balance Sheet of Empire.”

At the end of the book we find a long bibliography (divided into twelve sections, one for each chapter) and an index. The text is illustrated by 152 maps, plans, and photos in black-and-white. The author has travelled extensively in the Maghreb on four occasions: 1944, 1966, 1974, and 1975. Many photos are taken by his wife Dorothy, who accompanied him on the last three occasions.

MacKendrick got some good reviews. On the back cover of the dust jacket there are excerpts from two positive reviews of The Dacian Stones Speak from 1975. I understand the positive reviews, but I cannot agree completely with them.

Mackendrick was a pioneer in his field. Since he was able to read German and French as well as Italian, he could read archaeological excavation reports written in these languages and present the results in English. In 1980, when this book appeared, nobody had done this before.

The North African Stones Speak is a monumental work. The number of sites presented is impressive, and some sites are presented with many details. His account includes the famous story of the tunnel that was a part of the aqueduct that transported water to the ancient town Saldae (formerly Bougie, today Bejaia), although he fails to give the name of the Roman engineer: Nonius Datus (pp. 247-248). But not everything in the book is great. There are some flaws:

(1) The structure of the book. The author has two objectives. He wants to present the ancient history of North Africa, which calls for a chronological approach. He also wants to present some of the sites where traces of the ancient culture can still be seen, which calls for a geographical approach. The two methods do not go well together.

Unfortunately, MacKendrick chose a chronological approach, even though his main source (the ancient stones) seems to call for a geographical approach. This is a fatal flaw of this book and of the other books in the series.

If you are looking for background information or if you are an armchair traveller, the book may work quite well. But if you are a traveller who wants to visit some of the ancient sites in North Africa, the book is more difficult to use.

Chapter 5 is good, because it covers several sites in Cyrenaica, the eastern part of Libya, one by one. Chapter 6 is also good, because it covers several sites in Tripolitania, the western part of Libya, one by one. In other parts of the book the chronological approach has some odd consequences: Thuburbo Maius and Thysdrus are presented in chapter 3, but pop up again in chapter 4. Tipasa appears in chapter 7, but pops up again in chapter 8. The rebel Tacfarinas is mentioned in chapter 2, but pops up again in chapter 8.

(2) Some sites are mentioned, but get almost no space: the Altars of the Philaeni Brothers get only eight lines and not a single illustration (page 142); Ghirza gets only twelve lines and only one illustration (pp. 174-175).

For more details about these sites see Philip Kenrick, Libya Archaeological Guides: Tripolitania, Silphium Press 2009, pp. 152-157 (the Altars of the Philaeni Brothers) and pp. 182-195 (Ghirza).

(3) The mosaic in the House of the Ass (modern Djemila, ancient Cuicul) is presented on page 229 where we are told it comprises 80 panels. The author adds: “The panels, in five rows of sixteen, portray birds and animals.” There is no illustration here. If there was, we would quickly discover that the figure 80 is wrong. Rows A and B, rows D and E have 16 panels, but row C has only nine panels, which are slightly larger than the others. The total number of panels is 73.

A picture of the mosaic appears in Sites et monuments antiques de l’Algérie by Jean-Marie Blas de Roblès & Claude Sintes (2003), page 120.

(4) The House of Hesychius (Cyrene) is presented on pp. 129 and 131:

“Among Synesius’ correspondents was one Hesychius, whose house has been excavated north of the forum-agora street. Built on top of another house, which had been destroyed in the earthquake of 365, it contains a number of mosaics recording the owner’s name, rank (Libyarch – he presided over the provincial council), and religion (Christian).”

This identification is doubtful. Excavations seem to show that the house was abandoned after the earthquake of 365, and Synesius was not born until 370. Perhaps Hesychius is the father of Synesius, who lived in the house until the earthquake of 365 and moved to another place after the earthquake.

For more details about this case see Alan Cameron, Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius (1993), pp. 16-19, and Philip Kenrick, Libya Archaeological Guides: Cyrenaica (2013), pp.167-168.

(5) Ammianus Marcellinus is described as “the greatest neglected historian of antiquity” on page 263. Since MacKendrick feels this way, it is only fair to ask how many times he uses this source in his book about the ancient history of North Africa. The answer: he is mentioned twice, on page 263 (quoted above) and on page 133 following a passage about the earthquake of 365:

“The fourth-century historian Ammianus Marcellinus describes the earthquake – the lightning, tides receding, then engulfing whole cities; ships driven two miles inland.”

That is all. While MacKendrick blames modern scholars for neglecting Ammianus Marcellinus, he himself is guilty of the same sin!

MacKendrick’s book was published more than thirty years ago. Obviously, it is not up-to-date on every aspect. But as you can see, my criticism does not concern the age of the book. I only point out flaws which the author could (and should) have corrected before handing his manuscript to the publisher.

The North African Stones Speak is more a history book than a guidebook, although it purports to be both. In spite of the flaws I have mentioned here it is still a monumental work, and therefore I think it deserves a rating of four stars.

PS # 1: Rome in Africa by Susan Raven is a history book written by a journalist (first edition 1969; second edition 1984; third edition 1993). It is not listed in MacKendrick’s bibliography, but it is listed in “Acknowledgments” (page xx), because he borrowed an illustration from her book.

PS # 2: North Africa: The Roman Coast is a guidebook written by Ethel Davies and published by Bradt Travel Guides in 2009.

* * *

Paul Lachlan MacKendrick,

The North African Stones Speak,

University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,

hardcover 1980, paperback 2000, 434 pages

* * *

Paul Lachlan MacKendrick (1914-1998)

This picture is borrowed from the dust jacket of his book
The Iberian Stones Speak,
published in 1969.

* * *


 

The Iberian Stones Speak

Paul Lachlan MacKendrick (1914-1998) was a classical scholar from the United States. He was Professor of History and Classics at the University of Wisconsin for more than thirty years (1952-1984) and wrote several books about the history of the ancient world:

** The Mute Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Italy (1960, second edition 1984)

** The Greek Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Greek Lands (1962, second edition 1984)

** The Iberian Stones Speak: Archaeology in Spain and Portugal (1969)

** The Dacian Stones Speak (hardcover 1975, paperback 2000)

** The North African Stones Speak (hardcover 1980, paperback 2000)

The third book in the series, the one about the Iberian Peninsula, which is under review here, has 238 pages. The main text is divided into eight chapters which follow a chronological line from 12,000 BC to AD 350. At the end of the book we find a bibliography (divided into eight sections, one for each chapter) and an index. The text is illustrated by more than 155 maps, plans, and photos. Some of the photos are taken by the author, who has travelled widely in Spain and Portugal.

MacKendrick got some good reviews. On the back cover of the dust jacket there are excerpts from three positive reviews of his previous books. I understand the positive reviews, but I cannot agree completely with them.

Mackendrick was a pioneer in his field. Since he was able to read German and French as well as Spanish and Portuguese, he could read archaeological excavation reports written in these languages and present the results in English. In 1969, when his book appeared, nobody had ever done anything like that.

There are some good elements in this book. To mention just two examples: in chapter 6 he presents the bronze tablets discovered in the ancient town Urso (today Osuna) in Spain (Lex Ursonensis, pp. 122-125); in chapter 7 he presents the bronze tablets discovered in the ancient town Vipasca (today Aljustrel) in Portugal (Lex Metalli Vipascensis, pp. 180-181). But not everything in this book is great. There are several flaws:

(1) The structure of the book. The author has two objectives. He wants to present the ancient history of the Iberian Peninsula, which calls for a chronological approach. He also wants to present some of the sites where traces of the ancient culture can still be seen and some of the museums where ancient objects are on display today, which calls for a geographical approach. The two methods do not go well together.

As explained above, he chose the chronological approach, even though his main source (the ancient stones) seems to call out for a geographical approach. This is a fatal flaw of this book and of the other books in series.

If you are looking for background information or if you are an armchair traveller, the book may work quite well. But if you are a traveller who wants to visit some of the ancient sites in Portugal and/or Spain, the book does not work so well.

Chapter 3 is good, because most pages are devoted to a single site: Emporion in Spain. Chapter 5 is also good, because most pages are devoted to a single site: Numantia in Spain. In other chapters MacKendrick jumps from one province of Spain to another or from Spain to Portugal (and back again).

(2) Roman inscriptions are mentioned several times, for instance on pp. 138, 141 and 174. But they are only used to date a monument. In these cases I feel the book does not live up to its title. If there is a case when a mute stone speaks, it must be when an inscription is written on it. I think the reader deserves to know everything the inscription can tell us. Not only the date of a monument.

(3) Theodosius I is mentioned on page 175. MacKendrick says this emperor ruled from 379, which is correct, but fails to tell us that this emperor was born in Spain (although the exact location is uncertain). Moreover, he fails to mention the missorium of Theodosius - an important archaeological object - which was discovered in Spain in 1847.

[For more information about the missorium, see Ruth Leader-Newby, Silver and Society in Late Antiquity, published in 2004.]

(4) Adolf Schulten (1870-1960) is mentioned two times. On page 23 he is described as a German archaeologist, who worked in Spain, which is true. But on page 113 we are told that the local people are disappointed “at the news that he is not German.”

(5) The Portuguese antiquarian and forger Andre de Resende is mentioned on page 192 where we are told he was publishing ancient inscriptions “as early as the seventeenth century.” But he died in 1573, as stated on the same page.

(6) Viriathus - a leader of the Iberian resistance against the Romans and today a national hero in Portugal - is mentioned on pp. 108-109. We are told that “the Portuguese … have erected … a bronze statue of Viriathus surrounded by five of his shepherd-guerrillas.” Figure 5.8 on this page is a plan of “Cava de Viriato” north of Viseu, which is fine, but there is no picture of the statue mentioned in the text. Why not?

 



 

This picture (which is borrowed from Wikipedia)
shows the bronze statue of Viriathus in Viseu.

For more information about Viriathus,
see chapter 3 of The Enemies of Rome.



 

This book was published more than forty years ago. Obviously, it is not up-to-date on every aspect. But as you can see, my criticism does not concern the age of the book. I only mention flaws which MacKendrick could (and should) have corrected before handing his manuscript to the publisher. The Iberian Stones Speak is more a history book than a guidebook, although it purports to be both. For this reason I think it cannot get more than three stars.

PS. During the 1980s, two important Roman inscriptions were discovered in Spain. The first, known as Tabula Siarensis, was discovered near Seville in 1982. The second, known as Senatus Consultum de Cn. Pisone Patre, was discovered in the same area six years later. For more information about these discoveries see Death and Dynasty in Early Imperial Rome (2012).

* * *

Paul Lachlan MacKendrick,

The Iberian Stones Speak:

Archaeology in Spain and Portugal,

Funk & Wagnalls, New York, 1969, 238 pages

* * *

Paul Lachlan MacKendrick (1914-1998)

This picture is borrowed from the dust jacket of the book.

* * *


 

Cities in the Sand

Aubrey Menen (1912-1989) was an English writer of Irish and Indian parentage, who wrote fiction (essays and novels). He also wrote some works of non-fiction, such as Rome Revealed (1960) and Venice (1976).

Cities in the Sand - which is under review here - was published by Thames & Hudson in the UK in 1972 and by the Dial Press in the US in 1973.

There are 272 pages. The main text is divided into 32 chapters which cover different topics, places or persons: the history of the Phoenicians, the history of the Romans, brief biographies of several Roman emperors (Septimius Severus, Caracalla, etc.), and descriptions of four ancient cities (Leptis Magna in Libya, Palmyra in Syria, Petra in Jordan and Timgad in Algeria). These are the “Cities in the Sand.”

The text is illustrated by 184 illustrations: a chart of the alphabet, a map of the Mediterranean world, three drawings, a plan of Palmyra, and 178 photos (20 in colour). The colour photos are fabulous. I wish all photos in the book had been in colour.

The book includes a chronological table, a bibliography, and an index.

The author has visited several ancient sites, including the four “cities in the sand,” and he tells us what he thinks about them: he likes Leptis Magna, because it is noble; he likes Palmyra, because it is rich; and he likes Petra, because it is a creative miracle. He does not like Timgad, because it is boring and dull.

He lived in Rome for several years and seems to be familiar with the world of ancient history, but if you take a closer look, you will find that there are some flaws in his book:

(1) He thinks the arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna was built by the emperor (page 71).

The arch was built by members of the city council, who wanted to honour the boy from Leptis who had become emperor. It is likely that construction began around 194, as soon the news about Septimius had reached the city. The arch was probably completed by 202, when the emperor visited his home town.

(2) He says we do not know if Septimius returned to his home town as emperor.

We know he visited Leptis Magna in the winter of 202-203 and he brought his family along: his wife Julia Domna and his sons, Geta and Caracalla.

(3) He says reliefs from the arch were discovered buried in the sand, which is true. Then he adds that “they are now in the Bardo Museum in Tunis.”

The reliefs are in the National Museum in Tripoli. Two of them appear in the book (illustration # 54 and 56, page 76). The photo credits at the end of the book (page 264) give the correct location.

(4) He says Septimius Severus was born in AD 146 (page 117).

The future emperor was born on 11 April 145.

(5) He says the Roman fleet was stationed at “Misenium” (page 135).

The ancient name of this place is Misenum.

(6) The caption to illustration # 117 on page 162 reads: 
 

“A marble bust of the 3rd century, believed to be a portrait of Julia Mamaea, the ambitious mother of Elagabalus.”

The mother of Elagabalus was Julia Soaemias, as Menen explains on page 156. Julia Mamaea was the mother of Alexander Severus, as Menen explains of page 163.

(7) He says the ancient name of Timgad is “Colonia Marciana Traiana Thaumagas” (page 179).

The ancient name is Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi.

(8) He thinks Trajan’s Arch in Timgad was built by Trajan, who ruled 98-117.

While the arch is named after Trajan, it was built long after his time: perhaps 166-169, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180); perhaps in the beginning of the third century AD.

(9) He thinks most of the inhabitants of ancient Timgad were legionaries who were dreaming about their retirement.

The first inhabitants of this town were former soldiers (veterans), who had served twenty years in the army.

(10) He says the style of Trajan’s Arch is boring. Then he adds: 
 

“Even Queen Victoria did better when she ordered the Marble Arch in London.”

Construction of Marble Arch began in 1827, during the reign of George IV, who ruled 1820-1830. It was completed in 1833, during the reign of William IV, who ruled 1830-1837. Victoria was born in 1819 and she was the queen of England for several decades (1837-1901), but she had nothing to do with the construction of this arch.

(11) In chapter 32 about Petra (which is much too short) he says: “There is an amphitheatre, a forum, a market place, a gymnasium…” (p. 258).

There is no amphitheatre in Petra, but there is a theatre. Illustration # 178 is a great colour picture of this ancient monument. The caption says: “a view of the theatre.” The photo credits at the end of the book (page 269) have the same information.

Cities in the Sand was published ca. forty years ago. Obviously it is not up-to-date on every aspect. But as you can see, my criticism does not concern the age of the book. I only point out flaws which the author could (and should) have corrected before sending the manuscript to the printer.

This book is, in many ways, an interesting account of life in the ancient world – we can see “the splendor and the lunacy of the Ancient World,” as the US publisher says on the dust jacket of the US edition - but for reasons explained above I cannot give it more than three stars.

PS. For more information about the four ancient cities, see Libya: The Lost Cities of the Roman Empire (about Leptis Magna); The Monuments of Syria: A Guide (about Palmyra); The North African Stones Speak (about Timgad); and Petra: Splendors of the Nabataean Civilization (about the ancient city in Jordan).

* * *

Aubrey Menen,

Cities in the Sand,

Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1972 

The Dial Press, New York, 1973, 272 pages

* * *

Thirst: Water and Power in the Ancient World

Steven Mithen is Professor of Early Prehistory at the University of Reading and the author of several books, including After the Ice (hardcover 2003, paperback 2004). His book Thirst has the subtitle Water and Power in the Ancient World. In this book he examines nine ancient civilizations or societies which had some kind of water management. Here are the locations with approximate time frames:

** The Sumerian civilization, 5000-1600 BC

** Minoan Crete and Ancient Greece, 1800-146 BC
** The Nabataean Kingdom (Petra), 300 BC-AD 106

** The Roman Empire (Rome and Constantinople), 400 BC-AD 800

** Ancient China, 900 BC-AD 907
** Ancient Cambodia (Angkor), AD 802-1327

** The Hohokam (Arizona, US), AD 1-1450

** The Maya, 2000 BC-AD 1000
** The Incas, AD 1200-1572

With this book Mithen ventures outside his field of expertise, because he moves from pre-history to ancient history. He studied the works of several experts and consulted some of them. In addition, he travelled the world in order to visit the locations which are covered in his book. Personal experiences and/or impressions from these locations pop up from time to time.

The text is illustrated by 28 black-and-white figures and 49 colour photographs. Many photos are taken by Mithen himself or by his wife, Sue Mithen, who is listed as a contributor on the frontispiece (although her name does not appear on the cover).

Mithen got some good reviews: inside the paperback version there are excerpts from several positive reviews of the hardcover version of this book or other books written by him.

A review of this book posted on Amazon.com by Charles Ortloff gives it five stars. Ortloff is the author of Water Engineering in the Ancient World (2009). His article about the water management in Petra, published in the Cambridge Archaeological Journal in 2005, is listed in the bibliography.

Mithen presents and evaluates the archaeological evidence. Here are two examples: in chapter 8 he asks: what was the purpose of the water system in Angkor? Flood control, irrigation, or a religious motive? In chapter 10 he presents several explanations for the downfall of the Mayan civilization.

This is, in many ways, a good book. I want to praise the author for undertaking an ambitious project, but I have to mention some flaws which bother me:

(1) Chapter 2 – “The Water Revolution” – is not necessary and not relevant, because it deals mostly with prehistoric societies, which did not have any kind of water management.

(2) There are several mistakes and/or misunderstandings in the text. For some reason most of them are found in chapter 6 about the Roman Empire. Here are some examples:

** On page 131 Mithen says:

“… walkers follow the aqueduct as it marks the ancient route of the Appian Way.”

This is not true: if you leave Rome and follow the aqueducts, you are going east; if you leave Rome and follow the Appian Way, you are going south-southeast.

** On the same page he says: 

“Frontinus was appointed as the cura aquarium - the city’s water official – during the reign of the emperor Claudius, in around AD 95.”

Almost everything is wrong here: the title, the year, and the name of the emperor: Frontinus was appointed as curator aquarum in AD 97 by Nerva, who was emperor 96-98 (Claudius ruled 41-54).

** On page 133 the author talks about one “castellum,” which is correct. But on page 136 he says there were “92 castellae in the city,” which is wrong. The plural of the Latin word “castellum” is “castella.”

** On page 135 Mithen claims Marcus Agrippa died in 11 BC. This is not true: he died in 12 BC.

** On page 143 the author claims the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II ruled 408-430. This is not true: he ruled from 408 to 450.

** On pp. 138-139 he presents the Baths of Caracalla and says: 

“A ‘mythraeum’ was also found underground – a room for the worship of the Egyptian god Mythra.”

This statement is most unfortunate: a sanctuary of Mithras is known as a mithraeum, and Mithras is a Persian god. The wrong word “mythraeum” pops up again on page 182.

** In chapter 7 about China, Mithen presents the British scholar Joseph Needham. Note 4, on page 311, refers the reader to a biography of Needham by Winchester published in 2008. But the bibliography does not include a work by anyone with this name. The missing title is The Man Who Loved China by Simon Winchester (hardcover 2008, paperback 2009).

** In chapter 8 about Angkor, he tells us he travelled in a “tut tut,” i.e. a rickshaw pulled by a motorbike (page 180). He must have misunderstood or misheard the name, because this type of vehicle is known as a “tuk-tuk” (not only in Cambodia, but also in Laos and in Thailand). The wrong word pops up again on pp. 198 and 199.

(3) The index is incomplete. Here are a few examples:

** The tunnel of Eupalinos on the island of Samos is mentioned on pp. 96 and 286, but neither the name of the engineer nor the name of the island is listed in the index.

** A letter written by Seneca is quoted on pp. 127-128, but the famous ancient author is not listed in the index.

** Theodosius II, who is mentioned on page 143, is not listed in the index.

These flaws are unfortunate. Many of them do not even concern the main topic, water management in the ancient world. They are part of the additional information, which Mithen presents in order to make his account more vivid and in order to show us that he visited each of these nine locations.

These flaws are embarrassing. They could all have been avoided, if Mithen had bothered to check his manuscript one more time or if he had asked somebody to do it for him, since he did not have the time or the energy to do it himself.

Thirst could have been a perfect book about a fascinating topic, but it is not, and therefore I can only give this book a rating of four stars.

* * *

Steven Mithen with Sue Mithen,

Thirst: Water and Power in the Ancient World,

Weidenfeld & Nicolson, hardcover 2012,

Phoenix, paperback 2013, 347 pages 

* * *

  

Sacred Fortress

Otto Georg von Simson (1912-1993) was a German art historian, who was educated in Germany and England. In 1939, he moved to the United States, where he taught at several colleges. From 1951 to 1957, he was Professor at the University of Chicago. In 1957 he returned to Germany, where he died in 1993.

His book Sacred Fortress: Byzantine Art and Statecraft in Ravenna was published by the University of Chicago Press in 1948. It was reprinted (with a new preface) by the University of Princeton Press in 1987. There are 150 pages, including notes and an index, plus 48 plates with 61 illustrations (black-and-white photographs).

In this book von Simson examines the art of three churches in Ravenna plus a famous chair, known as Maximian’s Throne. When I use the word art, I mean the mosaics or, to be more precise, the most important mosaics in the three churches.

The mosaics are polychrome, i.e. there are many colours. Unfortunately, all illustrations are in black-and-white. To see these mosaics in colour, please turn to Ravenna: An Art Guide (1973) or Ravenna: Art and History (1991).

According to the Dictionary of Art Historians, which is available online, von Simson despised the title of the book. It was suggested by his editor. The dictionary does not tell us what title the author wanted to use.

If we wonder how an editor was inspired to suggest this title, we can turn to page 20 where we are told that “the monuments of Ravenna attest, above all, the admirable logic and consistency of a statecraft capable of planning theological, as well as military, moves simultaneously, as steps leading to the same goal.”

The next sentence refers to Ravenna as “an embattled fortress surrounded by Gothic might.”

The main characters are presented in chapter one:

** Justinian, born ca. 482, ruler of the Byzantine Empire 527-565

** Julianus Argentarius, an architect and/or a builder and/or a banker, who paid 26,000 solidi (gold coins) to finance the construction of San Vitale

** Maximian, born 499, archbishop of Ravenna 546-556

[The author is very fond of Maximian, who is praised as a theological scholar and as Justinian’s representative in Ravenna. On two occasions von Simson uses the word “genius” to describe him: pp. 21 and 111.]

San Vitale, consecrated by Maximian in May 548, is examined in chapter 2. In this chapter the author pays great attention to the dedicatory mosaics in the apse, which show Emperor Justinian and his court on the left and Empress Theodora and her court on the right.

Sant’ Apollinare in Classe, consecrated by Maximian in May 549, is examined in chapter 3. In this chapter the author pays great attention to the mosaic in the apse, which portrays Saint Apollinaris standing below a huge cross.

Maximian’s Throne, a chair that was made for Maximian ca. 550, is examined in chapter 4. With only six pages this chapter is the shortest in the book. Today the chair or cathedra is on display in the Museum of the Archbishop in Ravenna (where you are not allowed to use a camera).

The chair was made in the Christian east, but scholars do not know if it was made in Constantinople or in Alexandria. It is made of several carved ivory panels, which depict figures and scenes from the Bible.

Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo is examined in chapter 5. With more than forty pages this chapter is the longest in the book. This building was consecrated as an Arian church during the reign of Theodoric (493-526). When the Byzantines conquered Ravenna (and later Italy), it was decided to modify some of the mosaics inside the building. The author explains how and where this happened. Around 560 the building was consecrated as an orthodox (or Catholic) church by Agnellus (born 487), who was the archbishop of Ravenna 556-570.

I have mixed feelings about this book. On the positive side I can say that the author examines the mosaics of the three churches in Ravenna as well as the famous chair in great detail, and he is able to present some interesting results.

On the negative side I have to say that there are some serious flaws. First of all, the pictures of the polychrome mosaics are in black-and-white. The pictures are quite good, but the lack of colour is deplorable. The old photos from the first edition should have been replaced with new colour pictures when the book was reprinted in 1987.

Secondly, the author tries to connect the mosaics with the rituals and the liturgy of the Christian church. While there is nothing wrong with this idea, he goes completely over board. Sometimes the rituals and the liturgy get so much attention that the mosaics themselves seem to fade into the background.

A third point concerns chapter four about Maximian’s chair. On page 68 the author says:

 

“It is certain that the cathedra was purchased by Maximian and belonged to him.”

This is not certain at all. Modern scholars assume the chair was a gift from Justinian, but von Simson does not even mention this interpretation, which seems much more likely than his own.

A fourth point concerns chapter five about Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo. On page 103 the author decides to include some additional evidence:

 

“Of special interest to us is a number of sarcophagi in Ravenna which undoubtedly had been completed by the time that the mosaics in Sant’ Apollinare were executed.”

Having made this statement, he describes the sarcophagus of Isaacius, or Isaac the Armenian, who was the exarch ca. 625-ca. 643, i.e. long after the age of Justinian!

This is, in many ways, an interesting book, but as you can see there are some serious flaws, and therefore I think it deserves a rating of three stars.

PS. For a recent study of this topic, turn to Ravenna in Late Antiquity by Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis (hardcover 2010, paperback 2013).

* * *

 

Georg Otto von Simson,

Sacred Fortress: Byzantine Art and Statecraft in Ravenna,

University of Chicago Press, hardcover, 1948,

University of Princeton Press, paperback, 1987

150 pages + 48 plates with 61 illustrations

 

* * *

 

For more information about Ravenna see my blogs:

 

Basilica di S. Vitale (1)

Basilica di S. Vitale (2)

 

Basilica di S. Apollinare in Classe (1)

Basilica di S. Apollinare in Classe (2)

 

Ravenna: Sites to See and Prices to Pay

 

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